Volume 11 Issue 4
Aug.  2026
Turn off MathJax
Article Contents
Article Navigation >  Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts  > 2026  >  11(4): 100279
Zeyu Chang, Yunfan Ji, Xiaofeng Sun, Yang Song, Qiang Xu, Ning Ma, Pengfei Li, Meng Wang, Xiaojuan Jin, Shijing Li, Kun Wang, Jianxin Jiang. Scaffold-microenvironment decoupling in chitosan hydrogels: A design strategy for integrated energy storage, sensing, and energy harvesting[J]. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 2026, 11(4): 100279. doi: 10.1016/j.jobab.2026.100279
Citation: Zeyu Chang, Yunfan Ji, Xiaofeng Sun, Yang Song, Qiang Xu, Ning Ma, Pengfei Li, Meng Wang, Xiaojuan Jin, Shijing Li, Kun Wang, Jianxin Jiang. Scaffold-microenvironment decoupling in chitosan hydrogels: A design strategy for integrated energy storage, sensing, and energy harvesting[J]. Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, 2026, 11(4): 100279. doi: 10.1016/j.jobab.2026.100279
shu

Scaffold-microenvironment decoupling in chitosan hydrogels: A design strategy for integrated energy storage, sensing, and energy harvesting

doi: 10.1016/j.jobab.2026.100279
  • a.

    MOE Engineering Research Center of Forestry Biomass Materials and Bioenergy, College of Materials Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China

  • b.

    Forest Industry Linmao (Heilongjiang) Biotechnology Industry Group Co., Ltd., Harbin 154004, China

  • c.

    School of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

  • d.

    Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, Guangxi Collaborative Innovation Center for Chemistry and Engineering of Forest Products, Guangxi Minzu University, Nanning 530006, China

  • e.

    China National Pulp and Paper Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing 100102, China

  • f.

    Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China

More Information
  • Corresponding author: E-mail address: wangkun@bjfu.edu.cn (K. Wang)
  • Received Date: 2026-01-30
  • Accepted Date: 2026-06-05
  • Rev Recd Date: 2026-05-29
    • Available Online: 2026-06-20
  • Publish Date: 2026-08-01
    Abstract

  • Chitosan-based hydrogels are attractive for sustainable flexible electronics, yet their development is fundamentally hampered by a persistent materials dilemma in which enhancing mechanical integrity through crosslinking or crystallization inevitably sacrifices ionic mobility and environmental stability, leading to poor conductivity and dehydration susceptibility. To address this dilemma, we present a scaffold-microenvironment decoupling strategy. This approach architecturally separates the requirements for mechanical robustness and ion transport by constructing a hierarchically tough yet open polymer scaffold, while independently programming the internal aqueous phase into a highly conductive and cryo-tolerant microenvironment through tailored ion hydration and salting-out. The resulting hydrogel materializes this synergy, exhibiting integrated properties including high mechanical strength, ultra-high ionic conductivity of 68.6 mS/cm, and exceptional resistance to freezing below −85 ℃ and dehydration. Beyond a multifunctional material, this system validates a novel design paradigm. Its practical efficacy is demonstrated across three distinct and demanding electronic applications serving as an ultra-stable electrolyte for flexible supercapacitors with over 10,000-cycle durability, a high-fidelity wearable sensor for physiological signal monitoring, and an effective component in triboelectric nanogenerators. This work provides a blueprint for designing next-generation sustainable soft materials where traditionally conflicting properties can be harmoniously unified.

     

    • Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process
    After the completion of the full manuscript, Grammarly and DeepSeek were used for grammar checking, wording polishing and linguistic fluency improvement. No generative AI models were applied in experiments, figure plotting, data analysis or result derivation.
    Author contributions
    Zeyu Chang: conceptualization, methodology, writing-original draft. Yunfan Ji: methodology. Xiaofeng Sun, Yang Song and Qiang Xu: resources. Ning Ma, Pengfei Li, Meng Wang, Xiaojuan Jin and Shijing Li: supervision. Jianxin Jiang: writing-review and editing. Kun Wang: conceptualization, supervision, writing-review, editing and funding.
    Declaration of competing interest
    The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
    Supplementary materials
    Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jobab.2026.100279.
    Peer review under the responsibility of Editorial Office of Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts.
    FullText(HTML)
  • loading
    • References(47)
  • Chang, Z.Y., Xu, Q., Liu, Y.L., Song, Y., Geng, F.L., Yuan, S.G., Yao, X., Ma, N., Wang, K., Song, G.Y., Jiang, J.X., 2026. Green fabrication of high-performance chitosan-nanocellulose composite films using wood vinegar as a bio-based solvent and functionalizer. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 342, 150218. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.150218
    Chang, Z.Y., Xu, Q., Yan, S.K., Liu, Y.L., Geng, F.L., Yuan, S.G., Yao, X., Ma, N., Wang, K., Song, G.Y., Jiang, J.X., 2025. Film based on chitosan and wood vinegar with superior antioxidant, UV-shielding, and bacteriostatic properties for food packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 167, 111430. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2025.111430
    Chen, Y., Liu, L.C., Huang, Y., Cao, H.D., Liu, T.T., Qi, Z.X., Hu, J.W., Guo, Y.G., Sun, J.T., Liang, M.F., Wei, J.F., Zhang, H., Zhang, X.Q., Wang, H.C., 2024. Low-salt organohydrogel electrolytes for wide-potential-window flexible all-solid-state supercapacitors. Appl. Energy 363, 123100. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123100
    Delley, B., 1990. An all-electron numerical method for solving the local density functional for polyatomic molecules. J. Chem. Phys. 92, 508–517. doi: 10.1063/1.458452
    Delley, B., 2000. From molecules to solids with the DMol3 approach. J. Chem. Phys. 113, 7756–7764. doi: 10.1063/1.1316015
    Feng, E.K., Li, J.J., Zheng, G.C., Yan, Z., Li, X., Gao, W., Ma, X.X., Yang, Z.M., 2021. Long-term anti-freezing active organohydrogel based superior flexible supercapacitor and strain sensor. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 9, 7267–7276. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c01209
    Ge, W.J., Cao, S., Yang, Y., Rojas, O.J., Wang, X.H., 2021. Nanocellulose/LiCl systems enable conductive and stretchable electrolyte hydrogels with tolerance to dehydration and extreme cold conditions. Chem. Eng. J. 408, 127306. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.127306
    Han, Y.C., Shi, C., Cui, F.C., Chen, Q., Tao, Y.H., Li, Y.Q., 2020. Solution properties and electrospinning of polyacrylamide and ε-polylysine complexes. Polymer (Guildf) 204, 122806. doi: 10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122806
    He, L., Wang, J.Q., Weng, S., Jiang, X.C., 2023. A high-strength, environmentally stable, and recyclable starch/PVA organohydrogel electrolyte for flexible all-solid-state supercapacitor. Carbohydr. Polym. 306, 120587. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.120587
    He, X.L., Dong, J., Zhang, X.N., Bai, X.Y., Zhang, C., Wei, D.S., 2022. Self-healing, anti-fatigue, antimicrobial ionic conductive hydrogels based on choline-amino acid polyionic liquids for multi-functional sensors. Chem. Eng. J. 435, 135168. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2022.135168
    Huang, W.J., Li, Y., Chen, M.S., Chen, J.L., Liu, J., Xiang, S.F., Fu, F.Y., Liu, X.D., Li, N., 2024. Durable antibacterial cotton fiber surface fabricated by the thiol-ene click reaction between eugenol and L-cysteine. Appl. Surf. Sci. 643, 158742. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2023.158742
    Jung, G., Lee, H., Park, H., Kim, J., Wook Kim, J., Sik Kim, D., Keum, K., Hui Lee, Y., Sook Ha, J., 2022. Temperature-tolerant flexible supercapacitor integrated with a strain sensor using an organohydrogel for wearable electronics. Chem. Eng. J. 450, 138379. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2022.138379
    Lan, M.H., Zhang, J.W., Zhou, J., Gu, H.B., 2024. CQDs-cross-linked conductive collagen/PAA-based nanocomposite organohydrogel coupling flexibility with multifunctionality for dual-modal sensing of human motions. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16, 23838–23854.
    Lei, X.J., Zhu, K., Liu, H., Jiang, W., Zhang, K., Zhao, J.C., Zeng, K.F., Ming, J., 2024. Eco-friendly packaging film with integrated functions of high-efficiency radiation cooling and sustained-release antimicrobial activity. Chem. Eng. J. 496, 153430. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.153430
    Liu, C.W., Zhang, R., Wang, Y., Wei, C.M., Li, F., Qing, N., Tang, L.Y., 2023a. Highly adhesive chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels via the synergy of phytic acid and boric acid and their application as highly sensitive and widely linear strain sensors. Mater. Horiz. 10, 3488–3498. doi: 10.1039/d3mh00739a
    Liu, H., Li, D.L., Chu, H.X., Ding, Y., Fu, Z.W., Yao, X.N., Zhu, J.Y., Yang, J.Q., Liu, R.N., Xu, T., Fu, S.M., Liu, Y.Y., Han, Y.X., Wang, Y.P., Zhao, Y., Cui, X.Y., Tian, Y., 2024a. Ultra-stretchable triboelectric touch pad with sandpaper micro-surfaces for transformer-assisted gesture recognition. Nano Energy 130, 110110. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110110
    Liu, H., Yu, L., Zhao, B.Q., Ni, Y.Z., Gu, P., Qiu, H., Zhang, W., Chen, K.L., 2023b. Bio-inspired color-changing and self-healing hybrid hydrogels for wearable sensors and adaptive camouflage. J. Mater. Chem. C 11, 285–298. doi: 10.1039/d2tc03102g
    Liu, Y., Wang, J., Hou, P., Gao, Z.C., Liu, Y., Zhao, J.N., Huo, P.F., 2024b. Preparation of dual cross-linked hydrogel electrolytes containing modified lignin for supercapacitors and sensors. Chem. Eng. J. 480, 148259. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.148259
    Long, Y.Z., Liu, X.X., Huang, F.X., Peng, L., Duan, Y.Q., Bai, G.H., Zhu, Z.Q., Su, D.S., 2025. Normal-pressure-prepared chitosan carbonate liquid dressing: spontaneous transformation into a pure chitosan water-resistant film and enhanced wound repair. Carbohydr. Polym. 366, 123805. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.123805
    Lu, B.L., Lin, F.C., Jiang, X., Cheng, J.J., Lu, Q.L., Song, J.B., Chen, C., Huang, B., 2017. One-pot assembly of microfibrillated cellulose reinforced PVA–borax hydrogels with self-healing and pH-responsive properties. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 5, 948–956. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b02279
    Luo, H.Y., Liang, D.Y., Liu, Q., Niu, L., Temirlan, K., Li, W.H., 2025. Electron beam irradiation combined with cold plasma modification of chitosan to enhance physicochemical and functional properties. Carbohydr. Polym. 354, 123308. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.123308
    Mo, F.N., Liang, G.J., Meng, Q.Q., Liu, Z.X., Li, H.F., Fan, J., Zhi, C.Y., 2019. A flexible rechargeable aqueous zinc manganese-dioxide battery working at −20 ℃. Energy Environ. Sci. 12, 706–715. doi: 10.1039/c8ee02892c
    Sheng, H.L., Li, R.L., Li, R., Li, L., Li, S.Z., Li, Y.Q., Yuan, J.L., Huang, J., Xu, Q.Q., Zheng, Q., Zhang, L.H., Xie, H.B., 2024. Molecularly engineered chitosan-derived poly(aprotic/protic ionic liquids) double-network hydrogel electrolytes for flexible supercapacitors and wearable strain sensors. Chem. Eng. J. 497, 154994. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.154994
    Su, W., Chang, Z., Li, J., E, Y.Y., Cai, W.K., Yao, X., Wang, M., Wang, K., Jiang, J.X., 2023. Polysaccharides-based ultra-thin membrane with high haze, conductivity, and recyclability. Chem. Eng. J. 472, 144933. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.144933
    Su, W.Y., Pang, Y., Chang, Z.Y., E, Y.Y., Geng, F.L., Yao, X., Yuan, S.G., Ma, M.G., Ju, Y.S., Wang, K., Jiang, J.X., 2024. A "nanofiber membrane-microarray hydrogel" dual-module structure for thermal-solar-electric energy conversion. Nano Energy 123, 109408. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109408
    Tang, C., Li, M.N., Yao, Y.Z., Wang, Y.L., Zhang, Y., Wang, G.L., Liu, J.M., Li, L., 2023. High-performance environmental adaptive microsupercapacitors from multifunctional hydrogel via modulating ionic hydration and hydrogen bonds. Energy Storage Mater. 55, 527–537. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.12.018
    Tao, X.Y., Zhu, K.H., Chen, H.M., Ye, S.F., Cui, P.X., Dou, L.Y., Ma, J., Zhao, C., He, J., Feng, P.Z., 2023. Recyclable, anti-freezing and anti-drying silk fibroin-based hydrogels for ultrasensitive strain sensors and all-hydrogel-state super-capacitors. Mater. Today Chem. 32, 101624. doi: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2023.101624
    Wan, X.J., Song, H.Q., Hu, F., Xu, B., Wu, Z.Y., Wang, J.W., 2023. Highly stable flexible supercapacitors enabled by dual-network polyampholyte hydrogel without additional electrolyte additives. Chem. Eng. J. 458, 141460. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.141460
    Wang, H., Chen, S., Liu, X.M., Zhang, Q., Liu, X., 2025. Post-tunable salt gel electrolytes toward flexible supercapacitor switches. J. Energy Chem. 100, 114–124. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2024.08.032
    Wang, H.Y., Song, R., Chen, G.R., Wang, F., Wang, L.Y., Lei, J.D., Liu, J., 2026. Biomass-based dual-network multifunctional hydrogel for durable wearable sensors and emergency hemostasis. Chem. Eng. J. 529, 172777. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2026.172777
    Wang, X.Y., Wang, B.Y., Liu, W.X., Yu, D.H., Song, Z.P., Li, G.D., Liu, X.N., Wang, H.L., Ge, S.H., 2024. Using chitosan nanofibers to simultaneously improve the toughness and sensing performance of chitosan-based ionic conductive hydrogels. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 260, 129272. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129272
    Wang, Y., Chen, G.Q., Yang, F.Z., Luo, Z.H., Yuan, B.H., Chen, X.F., Wang, L.C., 2022. Serendipity discovery of fire early warning function of chitosan film. Carbohydr. Polym. 277, 118884. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118884
    Wang, Y., Kern, A., Boatright, N.K., Schiller, Z.A., Sadowski, A., Ejemel, M., Souders, C.A., Reimann, K.A., Hu, L., Thomas Jr, W.D., Klempner, M.S., 2016. Pre-exposure prophylaxis with OspA-specific human monoclonal antibodies protects mice against tick transmission of Lyme disease spirochetes. J. Infect. Dis. 214, 205–211. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiw151
    Wu, Y.X., Wang, S., Sang, M., Shu, Q., Zhang, J.S., Xuan, S.H., Gong, X.L., 2021. A safeguarding and high temperature tolerant organogel electrolyte for flexible solid-state supercapacitors. J. Power Sources 505, 230083. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230083
    Xu, L.H., He, Y.T., Xu, Y., Sun, S.C., Liu, J., Yang, J., Wen, J.L., Yuan, T.Q., 2025. Deep eutectic solvent gel electrolytes reinforced with cellulose nanofibers for high-performance flexible solid-state supercapacitors. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35, 2501263. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202501263
    Yang, B.W., Yuan, W.Z., 2019. Highly stretchable and transparent double-network hydrogel ionic conductors as flexible thermal–mechanical dual sensors and electroluminescent devices. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 16765–16775. doi: 10.1021/acsami.9b01989
    Yang, J.B., Xu, Z., Wang, J.J., Gai, L.G., Ji, X.X., Jiang, H.H., Liu, L.B., 2021. Antifreezing zwitterionic hydrogel electrolyte with high conductivity of 12.6 mS cm−1 at −40 ℃ through hydrated lithium ion hopping migration. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31, 2009438. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202009438
    Yang, S.H., Pan, J., Fu, H.J., Zheng, J.C., Chen, F., Zhang, M.C., Gong, Z., Liang, K.Y., Wang, C.C., Lai, J.C., Fang, X.Q., Zhu, J.J., 2025. Preparation of carbon-based conductive hydrogels and their potential for promoting nerve regeneration. Adv. Compos. Hybrid Mater. 8, 185. doi: 10.1561/0100000133
    Ye, X.H., Huang, H.Y., Chen, L.Z., Wang, Y., Weng, M.C., Zhang, L.N., Luo, Z.L., 2024. All-round supercapacitors: a rational design of sustainable hydrogel electrolyte utilizing calcium salts. Chem. Eng. J. 483, 149158. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.149158
    Zhang, H.X., Niu, W.B., Zhang, S.F., 2020. Extremely stretchable, sticky and conductive double-network ionic hydrogel for ultra-stretchable and compressible supercapacitors. Chem. Eng. J. 387, 124105. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.124105
    Zhang, L.L., García-Pérez, P., Arikan, B., Elbasan, F., Nur Alp, F., Balci, M., Zengin, G., Yildiztugay, E., Lucini, L., 2023a. The exogenous application of wood vinegar induces a tissue- and dose-dependent elicitation of phenolics and functional traits in onion (Allium cepa L. ). Food Chem. 405, 134926. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134926
    Zhang, P.F., Wang, K.L., Zuo, Y.Y., Wei, M.H., Wang, H.W., Chen, Z., Shang, N., Pei, P.C., 2023b. A self-designed double cross-linked gel for flexible zinc-air battery with extreme conditions adaptability. Chem. Eng. J. 451, 138622. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2022.138622
    Zhang, Q., Liu, X., Zhang, J.W., Duan, L.J., Gao, G.H., 2021. A highly conductive hydrogel driven by phytic acid towards a wearable sensor with freezing and dehydration resistance. J. Mater. Chem. A 9, 22615–22625. doi: 10.1039/d1ta06408h
    Zhang, T.T., Ju, J.G., Zhang, Z.H., Su, D.Y., Wang, Y.C., Kang, W.M., 2024. Wearable flexible zinc-ion batteries based on electrospinning technology. J. Energy Chem. 98, 562–587. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2024.07.025
    Zhao, Y.L., Wu, R., Hao, Y.L., Zhao, Y., Zhang, X.C., Liu, H., Zhai, W., Dai, K., Pan, C.F., Liu, C.T., Shen, C.Y., 2025. Eco-friendly multifunctional hydrogel sensors enabled sustainable and accurate human-machine interaction system. Adv. Mater. 37, 2507127. doi: 10.1002/adma.202507127
    Zhu, X.Q., Ji, C.C., Meng, Q.Q., Mi, H.Y., Yang, Q., Li, Z.X., Yang, N.J., Qiu, J.S., 2022. Freeze-tolerant hydrogel electrolyte with high strength for stable operation of flexible zinc-ion hybrid supercapacitors. Small 18, 2200055. doi: 10.1002/smll.202200055
    Zou, J., Jing, X., Li, S.T., Chen, Y., Liu, Y.J., Feng, P.Y., Peng, X.F., 2025. Low mechanical-hysteresis conductive hydrogel conferred by chitosan bridging and MXene nanoconfined mechanism. Carbohydr. Polym. 348, 122849. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122849
    • Relative Articles
    • Supplements(0)
    • Cited By
  • 加载中

Catalog

    通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
    • 1. 

      沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

    1. 本站搜索
    2. 百度学术搜索
    3. 万方数据库搜索
    4. CNKI搜索

    Figures(9)

    Get Citation
    PDF
    XML

    Article Metrics

    Article views (25) PDF downloads(0) Cited by()
    Proportional views
    Related
    • Wechat: JBB生物质资源与工程

    Copyright © 2019 Editorial Office of Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts

    Supported by: Beijing Renhe Information Technology Co. Ltd  support: info@rhhz.net

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return